The role of mistakes in language learning

The role of mistakes in language learning by Tomasz P. Szynalski Of all the advice on Antimoon, “Do not make mistakes” is by far the most controversial. Hardly a month goes by without an e-mail or forum post from an angered English teacher, letting me know how stupid I am for telling learners to avoid mistakes. Don’t I realize that mistakes are a necessary element of all learning? Haven’t I heard the phrase “learn from your mistakes”? And why am I scaring learners into silence? With this article, I hope to clear up the confusion once and for all. Are mistakes good or bad? Let me say something obvious first: mistakes are bad. If one had a choice between saying a sentence correctly and saying it with a mistake, nobody in their right mind would choose saying it with a mistake — and no teacher would recommend that. Similarly, no teacher would give a higher grade to a student who made more mistakes than another one. The reason teachers sometimes say that mistakes shouldn’t be avoided is that they believe one of two things (or both): That mistakes are an inseparable part of the learning process; therefore, the only way to avoid language mistakes would be to avoid speaking and writing in a foreign language, and that would be bad. (the “Mistakes are inevitable” group) That making mistakes, and having them corrected, is a good way to learn a language. (the “Mistakes are good” group) Let’s take a look at each of these beliefs: “Mistakes are an inseparable part of the language learning process” One of the most frequently repeated pieces of business advice is that to succeed in business, you have to try many different things, until one of them finally works. Even huge corporations often release unprofitable products despite spending enormous amounts of money on market research. That’s because it is impossible to tell with 100% certainty whether customers will buy a product until it hits the shelves. These examples teach us that in “unknown” areas like scientific research and marketing, mistakes are truly inevitable. Where no one can predict what will work, people who try and fail have a higher probability of success than those who are doing nothing for fear of failure. Think of Thomas Edison, who had to test over 6,000 unsuitable materials for light bulb filaments until he found one that worked. Are there any other situations where mistakes are necessary? Let’s take learning to swim. Swimming is not an “unknown” area. There is no mystery in it. Everybody can watch slow-motion videos of Michael Phelps and see how it should be done. Photo by gabyu The problem here is that there is a long way between knowing how to swim and doing it yourself. It takes hours of training to develop the right reflexes: putting your head under water at just the right moment, synchronizing your legs and your arms, breathing in and breathing out, etc. The process involves many mistakes; in fact, as a beginner, almost everything you do is wrong. Are mistakes costly? You bet. Every swimming coach knows that mistakes can easily turn into bad habits, which are difficult to unlearn. When you fail in business, you lose money. These are the costs of mistakes. But you have to accept them, because there is no other way to succeed in business and in swimming. What about language learning? Now let’s take a look at language learning. It’s obvious that learning a language is not an “unknown” area like research or marketing. No one is asking learners to invent anything (indeed, they should not invent their own grammar and vocabulary) — they just need to do things exactly the way the native speakers do it. Language learning is not like learning to swim, either. In swimming, you can remember very well how your coach moves his arms, but still be unable to re-create that motion. Knowing the right way is not enough. You need to train your muscles to react in a certain way, which is a long, error-prone process. First you make a lot of mistakes, then fewer and fewer, until you are error-free. Copying and transforming sentences is an easy job for the brain. By contrast, in languages, knowing the right way is enough. If you can remember and understand a sentence in a foreign language, you can repeat it without any mistakes. If you remember two correct sentences, you can transform and combine them into another correct sentence. There is little room for mistakes. Now of course things are a bit more complicated than that: If you are just beginning to write or speak in a foreign language, it will perhaps take you 30 seconds to produce each sentence (you will make a lot of edits or, if you’re speaking, you will stutter and start over). That’s because it can take a long time to recall things, especially if they are not in your “active memory”. But even if you’re slow, your sentence can be error-free or almost error-free if you are careful. As noted before, the key to producing correct sentences is remembering correct examples. To build your own sentences in a foreign language, you need thousands of words, hundreds of grammatical structures and dozens of idioms. Furthermore, you must know which words are used in what contexts. For example, end can mean stop (e.g. We must end the project), but you cannot say I have decided to end seeing her (you must say: I have decided to stop seeing her). There are thousands of “exceptions” like that in any language. So, although there is only a short way between theory and practice, the theory is huge. However — and this is crucial — the theory can be acquired without producing mistakes (by reading and listening). Although following correct examples is not hard, there can be some problems. One is that certain information is difficult to notice. For example, if you don’t read English texts carefully, you may ignore the use of articles (a/the), as they are not necessary to understand the meaning. As a result, information on article usage will be missing from your memory and your correctness will suffer. A smaller problem is related to “unexpected exceptions”. Some usage patterns are so rare that it is very difficult to learn them, even with massive input. For instance, “I’d like to see The Simpsons” is correct if you mean the movie, but wrong if you mean the TV show (in that case, you’re supposed to say “I’d like to watch The Simpsons”). Differences like that are really hard to learn, even if you read a lot. There is one area of language learning where “knowing the right way” does not immediately translate into “doing it the right way”: pronunciation. You can spend hours listening to a native speaker saying a word, and still be unable to repeat it properly. In fact, learning to pronounce the sounds of a new language is very much like learning to swim — your brain and your muscles have to get used to new movements. The process takes time and involves many mistakes. What have we learned so far? First of all, that not all learning is trial-and-error learning. In particular, language learning is possible with few mistakes because: It does not require innovation or creativity. All you need to do is copy other people (native speakers). The gap between “knowing how it should be done” and “doing the right thing” is small. Once you have enough correct examples in your memory, it is relatively easy to transform and combine them into your own sentences. You need a lot of correct examples to speak a foreign language, but they can be acquired without mistakes. “Making mistakes is a good way to learn a language” We have seen that language learning can happen with few mistakes. But why should it? Isn’t speaking and writing with mistakes an effective way to learn a foreign language? After all, “practice makes perfect”, doesn’t it? Those who believe mistakes are a good way to learn probably picture the following model: Feedback-based learning. The learner says a sentence, makes some mistakes, the teacher corrects them, and the learner memorizes the proper way to say the sentence. Next time around, the learner will hopefully make fewer mistakes. The process is repeated until the learner is error-free. Now, why doesn’t this model work so well? It’s too slow Language learning is a very memory-intensive task. There is a staggering number of words, phrases, structures, and subtle differences in usage to memorize. Some verbs take the infinitive (e.g. cease to do something), some take the gerund (e.g. stop doing something). We get in the car, but on the bus. My copy of Michael Swan’s Practical English Usage has 654 pages of examples like these and it does not cover everything I know about English. (In contrast, all the information you need to swim perfectly can probably be written on a few pages; the rest is a matter of practice.) It is obvious that an efficient language learning method must somehow supply all this information to the learner. In other words, the learner needs a huge number of correct examples of the target language. In the feedback-based method, he gets correct examples when the teacher corrects him (and tells him how to say something) and when he listens to his own speech (and his sentences are correct). The problem is that the flow of information is too slow. When you speak in a language you don’t know well, you speak slowly, with many pauses. Before you open your mouth, you have to think what to say. Often, in the middle of the sentence, you start over when you realize you’ve made a mistake. There are also delays due to teacher-student interaction. All this means that the amount of correct language that reaches the learner’s ears is quite small. I did an informal experiment to measure this. First, I read a simplified German book for 15 minutes, using the “pause and think” method (paying attention to grammar and usage). I managed to read 55 sentences (476 words) before the time ran out. Then, I recorded myself talking about the story for 15 minutes. I constructed 21 German sentences (196 words). In terms of the sheer amount of input you get, 4 language classes per week (45 minutes each) would be equivalent to reading a book for 74 minutes. That’s about 10 minutes a day, 7 days a week. A whole school year (9 months) of classes (4 classes per week) provides about the same amount of input as a single 250-page book (84,000 words). Of course, these rough estimates assume classes where students speak all the time — in real classes, a great deal of time is simply wasted; a little time is also spent on pure input (reading a short article in the coursebook, listening to a short recording). It requires a competent teacher As the method is based on errors and feedback, it requires a competent feedback-giver. It is not clear where the learner is supposed to find such a person outside of the classroom. If he tries to interact with native speakers in real life or on the Internet, he will find that native speakers generally won’t correct his mistakes, as long as they can understand him. So grammar like this (example by Johnny) is likely to go unchallenged outside of the classroom: that not truthful really, i now am answer and express my thinking, and you understand myself on this replying, i am no doubt about it, but if you don’t correct my false words in this post then i keep practice false english and means i am learn this crap english. The learner can of course “stick to the classroom”, but making any real progress will require more than 8 classes a week. Such intensive courses are quite expensive and impractical for someone who has to go to work, school or college. It seems that a method based on “free” reading and listening will be both cheaper and more flexible. Finally, there is also the problem of finding good teachers. While I have so far assumed that teacher feedback is perfect, the reality is that teachers will ignore many mistakes due to insufficient attention, knowledge or time. Non-native teachers will sometimes object to correct sentences, or their “corrections” may be wrong themselves. My experience in the Polish educational system shows that very few non-native teachers are a reliable source of correct input (not to mention pronunciation, which is a typical Achilles’ heel). It can reinforce mistakes Every time you say an incorrect sentence, your brain gets used to it, and it becomes more likely that you will make the same mistake again. We are all familiar with the “fossilized” English learner who always says things like He make, She work, and no amount of corrections seems to help. This is what happens when you’ve been listening to your own version of English grammar for a long time. Feedback-based learning: more accurate model. Therefore, the output-based learning method actually contains two feedback loops: When the teacher corrects you and you try to remember that a given phrase is wrong (this correction will not always occur). Whenever you say an incorrect sentence. The second effect (reinforcement) is probably weaker than the first one (correction), but it further slows down learning methods that are based on speaking. If a learner spends most of his time listening to bad grammar (produced by himself and other students), and he gets little other input, one cannot expect good results. Final word Language learning does not have to be based on speaking, mistakes, and repeated correction. Indeed, if your goal is good English — that is, if you want to be able to speak and write in English with few mistakes and understand English-language television — the feedback-based method is the wrong way to do it. It builds your knowledge very slowly and depends on a good instructor. As a result, only intensive, long-term courses with competent teachers can give satisfactory results, but these are very expensive and very impractical. The alternative — input-based learning (more specifically, the Antimoon Method) — does not rely on mistakes and corrections. It gives you more information in less time and enables you to build your English whenever you want to, for as long as you want. On the other hand, it requires that you enjoy reading books in English or watching English-language programs, and that you apply the principles of careful reading and writing. Share this page: Share on facebook Share on twitter Share on gmail More Sharing Services Subscribe by e-mail or RSS to get notified when we publish a new update. Can you pronounce basic English words? Take our pronunciation test

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Kode Etik Profesi Keguruan

.       Pengertian Kode Etik

1. Menurut Undang-Undang Nomor 8 Tahun 1974 tentang pokok-pokok kepegawaian, pasal 28 Undang-Undang ini dengan jelas menyatakan bahwa “ Pegawai Negeri Sipil mempunyai kode etik sebagai pedoman sikap, tingkah laku dan perbuatan didalam dan diluar kedinasan.”
2. Dalam pidato pembukaan Kongres PGRI XIII,Basumi sebagai ketua umum PGRI menyatakan bahwa kode atik guru indonesia merupakan landasan moral dan pedoman tingkah laku guru warga PGRI dalam melaksanakan panggalilan pengabdiannya bekerja sebagai guru (PGRI, 1973). Dari pendapat ketua umum PGRI ini dapat ditarik kesimpulan bahwa dalam kode etik guru indonesia terdapat dua unsur pokok yakni: (1) sebagai landasan moral. (2) sebagai pedona tingkah laku.

Dari uraian diatas terlihat bahwa kode atik profesi adalah norma-norma yang harus diindahkan oleh onggota profesi didalam melaksanakan tugas profesinya dan dalam hidupnya di masyarakat.

1. Tujuan Kode Etik

Menurut R. Hermawan S (1979) secara umum tujuan kode etik adalah sebagai berikut:

1. Untuk menjunjung tinggi martabat profesi
2. Untuk menjaga dam memelihara kesejahteraan para anggotanya
3. Untuk meningkatkan penabdian para anggota profesi
4. Untuk meningkatkan mutu profesi
5. Untuk meningkatkan mutu oranisasi profesi

1. Penetapan Kode Etik

Kode etik hanya dapat ditetapkan oleh suatu organisasi profesi yang berlaku dan memikat para anggotanya. Penetapan kode etik lasim ditetapkan pada suatu kongres organisasi profesi. Dengan demikian, penetapan kode etik tidak dapat dilakukan oleh orang secara perorangan, melainkan harus dilakukan oleh orang-orang yang diutus untuk dan atas nama anggota profesi daro organisasi tersebut.

1. Sanksi Pelanggaran Kode Etik

Sering juga kita jumpai, bahwa ada kalanya negara memcampuri urusan profesi, sehingga hal-hal yag semula hanya merupaka kode etik dari suatu profesi tertentu dapat meningkat menjuadi perturan hukum atau undang-undang. Apabila hanya demikian, maka aturan yang mulanya seagai sebagai landasan moral dan pedoman tingkah laku meninkat menjadi aturan yang memberikan sanksi-sanksi hukum yang sifatnya memaksa, baik berupa sanksi perdata maupun sanksi pidana.

1. Kode Etik Guru Indonesia

Kode etik guru indonesi dapat dirumuskan sebaai himpunan nilai-nilai dan norma-norma profesi guru yang tersusun dengan baik dan sistematik dalam suatu sistem yang utuh dan bulat. Fungsi kode guru indonesia adalah sebagai landasan moral dan pedoman tingkah laku tiap guru warga PGRI dalam menunaikan tugasnya mengabdi sebagai guru, baik di dalam maupun di luar sekolah serta dalam kehidupan sehari-hari dimasyarakat. Dengan demikian kod etik guru indonesia merupakan alat yang amat penting untuk membentuk sikap profesional pada anggota profesi keguruan.

1. Organisasi Profesi Keguruan
2. Fungsi organisasi profesional keguruan

Seperti yang tekah disebutkan dalam salah satu kriteria jabatan profesi harus mempunyai wadah untuk menyatukan gerak lankah dan mengendalikan keseluruhan profesi, yakni organisasi profesi. Bagi guru-guru kita, itu telah ada yakni Persatuan guru Republik indonesia atau yang lebih dikenal denga PGRI yang didirikan di Surakarta pada tanggal 25 November 1945.

1. Jenis-jenis organisasi keguruan

Disamping PGRI yang satu-satunya organisasi yang diakui oleh pemerinta juga terdapat organisasi lain yang disebut Musyawarah Guru Mata Pelajaran (MGMP) yang didirikan atas anjuran Departeman Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. Sayangnya, organisasi ini tidak ada kaitan yang formal dengan PGRI. Selain itu ada juga organisasi profesional guru yang lain yaitu ikatan serjana pendidikan indonesia (ISPI), yang sekarang suda mempunyai nanyak devisi yaitu Ikatan Petugas Bimbingan Belajar (IPBI), Himpunan Serjana Administrasi Pendidikan Indonesia (HSPBI), dan lain-lain, hubungannya secara formal dengan PGRI juga belum tampak secara nyata, sehingga belum didapatkan kerjasama yang saling menunjang dalam meningkatkan mutu anggotanya.

1. Perkembangan Profesi keguruan

Kalau kita ikuti perkembangan profesi keguruan indonesia, jelas bahwa pada mulanya guru-guru indonesia diangkat dari orang-orang yang tidak berpendidikan khsusu untuk memengku jabata guru. Dalam bukunya Sejarah Pendidikan Indonesia, Nasution (1987) sejarah jelas melukiskan perkemnangan guru di indonesia. Pada mulanya guru diangkat dari orang-orang yang tidak memeiliki pendidikan khusus yang ditambah dengan orang-orang yang lulus dari sekolah guru (kweekschool) yang pertama kali didirikan di Solo tahun 1852. karena mendesaknya kapaerluan guru maka Pemerinta Hindia Belanda mengangkat lima macam guru yaitu:

1. Guru lulusan sekolah guru yang dianggap sebagai guru yang berwenang penuh.
2. Guru yang bukan sekolah guru, tetapi lulus ujian yang diadakan untuk menjadi guru.
3. Guru bantu. Yakni yang lulus ujian guru bantu.
4. Guru yang dimagangkan kepada seorang guru senior, yang merupakan calon guru.
5. Guru yang diangkat karena keadaan yang sangat mendesak yang berasal dari warga yang perna mengecap pendidikan.

Walaupun jabatan guru tidak harus disebut sebadai jabatan profesional penuh, status mulai membaik. Di indonesia telah ada Persatuang Guru Republik Indonesia (PGRI) yang mewadahi persatuan guru, dan juga mempunyai perwakilan di DPR/MPR.

Dalam sejarah pendidikan guru indonesia, guru pernah mempunyai status yang sangat tinggi di masyarakat, mempunyai wibawah yang sangat tinggi, dan dianggap sebagai orang yang serba tahu. Peranan guru saat itu tidak hanya mendidik anak di depan kelas, mendidik masyarakat, tempat masyarakat untuk bertanya, baik untuk memecahkan masalah pribadi maupun sosial. Namun, wibawah guru mulai memudar sejalan dengan kamajuan zaman, perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi, dan keperluan guru yang meningkat tentang imbalan atau balas jasa.

2. 2.   Syarat-syarat Profesi Guru

Suatu pekerjaan dapat menjadi profesi harus memenuhi kriteria atau persyaratan tertentu yang melekat dalam pribadinya sebagai tuntutan melaksanakan profesi tersebut. Menurut Dr. Wirawan, Sp.A (dalam Dirjenbagais Depag RI, 2003) menyatakan persyaratan profesi antara lain :

1. Pekerjaan Penuh

Suatu profesi merupakan pekerjan penuh dalam pengertian pekerjaan yang diperlukan oleh masyarakat atau perorangan. Tanpa pekerjaan tersebut masyarakat akan menghadapi kesulitan. Profesi merupakan pekerjaan yang mencakup tugas, fungsi, kebutuhan, aspek atau bidang tertentu dari anggota masyarakat secara keseluruhan. Profesi guru mencakup khusus aspek pendidikan dan pengajaran di sekolah.

1. Ilmu pengetahuan

Untuk melaksanakan suatu profesi diperlukan ilmu pengetahuan. Tanpa menggunakan ilmu tersebut profesi tidak dapat dilaksanakan.

Ilmu pengetahuan yang diperlukan untuk melaksanakan profesi terdiri dari cabang ilmu utama dan cabang ilmu pembantu. Cabang ilmu utama adalah cabang ilmu yang menentukan esensi suatu profesi. Contohnya profesi guru cabang ilmu utamanya adalah ilmu pendidikan dan cabang ilmu pembantunya masalah psikologi.

Salah satu persyaratan ilmu pengetahuan adalah adanya teori, bukan hanya kumpulan pengetahuan dan pengalaman. Fungsi dari suatu teori adalah untuk menjelaskan dan meramalkan fenomena. Dengan mempergunakan teopri ilmu pengetahuan, profesional dapat menjelaskan apanyang dihadapinya dan apa yang akan terjadi jika tidak dilakukan intervensi. Teori ilmu pengetahuan juga mengarahkan profesional dalam mengambil langkah-langkah yang diperlukan dalam melaksanakan profesi.

1. Aplikasi Ilmu Pengetahuan

Ilmu pengetahuan pada dasarnya mempunyai dua aspek yaitu aspek teori dan aspek aplikasi. Aspek aplikasi ilmu pengetahuan adalah penerapan teori-teori ilmu pengetahuan untuk membuat sesuatu, mengerjakan sesuatu atau memecahkan sesuatu yang diperlukan. Profesi merupakan penerapan ilmu pengetahuan untuk mengerjakan, menyelesaikan atau membuat sesuatu.

Kaitan dengan profesi, guru tidak hanya ilmu pengetahuan yang harus dikuasai oleh guru tetapi juga pola penerapan ilmu pengetahuan tersebut sehingga guru dituntut untuk mengusai keterampilan mengajar.

1. Lembaga pendidikan Profesi

Ilmu pengetahuan yang diperlukan oleh guru untuk melaksanakan profesinya harus dipelajari dari lembaga pendidikan tinggi yang khusus mengajarkan, menerapkan dan meneliti serta mengembangkan ilmu pengetahuan yang berkaitan dengan ilmu keguruan. Sehingga peran lembaga pendidikan tinggi sebagai pencetak sumber daya manusia harus betul-betul memberikan pemahaman dan pengetahuan yang mantap pada calon pendidik.

1. Prilaku profesi

Perilaku profesional yaitu perilaku yang memenuhi persyaratan tertentu, bukan perilaku pribadi yang dipengaruhi oleh sifat-sifat atau kebiasaan pribadi. Prilaku profesional merupakan perilaku yang harus dilaksanakan oleh profesional ketika melakukan profesinya.

Menurut Benard Barber (1985) (dalam Depag RI, 2003), perilaku profesional harus memenuhi persyaratan sebagai berikut :

1)     Mengacu kepada ilmu pengetahuan

2)     Berorientasi kepada insterest masyarakat (klien) buka interest pribadi.

3)     Pengendalian prilaku diri sendiri dengan mepergunakan kode etik.

4)     Imbalan atau kompensasi uang atau kehormatan merupakan simbol prestasi kerja bukan tujuan dari profesi.

5)     Salah satu aspek dari perilaku profesional adalah otonomi atau kemandirian dalam melaksanakan profesinya.

1. Standar profesi

Standar profesi adalah prosedur dan norma-norma serta prinsip-prinsip yang digunakan sebagai pedoman agar keluaran (out put) kuantitas dan kualitas pelaksanaan profesi tinggi sehingga kebutuhan orang dan masyarakat ketika diperlukan dapat dipenuhi.

Dibeberapa negara telah memperkenalkan “Standar Profesional untuk guru dan Kepala sekolah”, misalnya di USA dimana National Board of Professional teacher Standards telah mengembangkan standar dan prosedur penilaian berdasarkan pada 5 (lima) prinsip dasar (Depdiknas, 2005) yaitu :

1)     Guru bertanggung jawab (committed to) terhadap siswa dan belajarnya.

2)     Guru mengetahui materi ajar yang mereka ajarkan dan bagaimana mengajar materi tersebut kepada siswa.

3)     Guru bertanggung jawab untuk mengelola dan memonitor belajar siswa.

4)     Guru berfikir secara sistematik tentang apa-apa yang mereka kerjakan dan pelajari dari pengalaman.

5)     Guru adalah anggota dari masyarakat belajar

Standar di atas menunjukkan bahwa profesi guru merupakan profesi yang membutuhkan pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang memadai seiring dengan perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi sebab guru akan selalu berhadap dengan siswa yang memiliki karakteritik dan pengetahuan yang berbeda-beda maka untuk membimbing peserta didik untuk berkembang dan mengarungi dunia ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi yang secara tepat berubah sebagai ciri dari masyarat abad 21 sehingga tuntutan ini mengharuskan guru untuk memenuhi standar penilaian yang ditetapkan.

1. Kode etik profesi

Suatu profesi dilaksanakan oleh profesional dengan mempergunakan perilaku yang memenuhi norma-norma etik profesi. Kode etik adalah kumpulan norma-norma yang merupakan pedoman prilaku profesional dalam melaksanakan profesi.Kode etik guru adalah suatu norma atau aturan tata susila yang mengatur tingkah laku guru, dan oleh karena itu haruslah ditatati oleh guru dengan tujaun antara lain :

1)     Agar guru-guru mempunyai rambu-rambu yang dapat dijadikan sebagai pedoman dalam bertingkah laku sehari-hari sebagai pendidik.

2)     Agar guru-guru dapat bercermin diri mengenai tingkah lakunya, apakah sudah sesuai dengan profesi pendidik yang disandangnya ataukah belum.

3)     Agar guru-guru dapat menjaga (mengambil langkah prefentif), jangan sampai tingkah lakunya dapat menurunkan martabatnya sebagai seorang profesional yang bertugas utama sebagai pendidik.

4)     Agar guru selekasnya dapat kembali (mengambil langkah kuratif), jika ternyata apa yang mereka lakukan selama ini bertentangan atau tidak sesuai dengan norma-norma yang telah dirumuskan dan disepakati sebagai kode etik guru.

5)     Agar segala tingkah laku guru, senantiasa selaras atau paling tidak, tidak bertentangan dengan profesi yang disandangnya, ialah sebagai seorang pendidik. Lebih lanjut dapat diteladani oleh anak didiknya dan oleh masyarakat umum.

Kode etik guru ditetapkan dalam suatu kongres yang dihadiri oleh seluruh utusan cabang dan pengurus daerah PGRI se Indonesia dalam kongres k XIII di Jakarta tahun 1973, yang kemudian disempurnakan dalam kongres PGRI ke XVI tahun 1989 juga di Jakarta yang berbunyi sebagai berikut :

1)     Guru berbakti membimbing siswa untuk membentuk manusia seutuhnya yang berjiwa Pancasila.

2)     Guru memiliki dan melaksanakan kejujuran profesional.

3)     Guru berusaha memperoleh informasi tentang siswa sebagai bahan melakukan bimbingan dan pembinaan.

4)     Guru menciptakan suasana sekolah sebaik-baiknya yang menunjang berhasilnya proses belajar-mengajar.

5)     Guru memelihara hubungan baik dengan orang tua murid dan masyarakat sekitarnya untuk membina peran serta dan rasa tanggung jawab bersama terhadap pendidikan.

6)     Guru secara pribadi dan bersama-sama mengembangkan dan meningkatkan mutu dan martabat profesinya.

7)     Guru memelihara hubungan seprofesi, semangat kekeluargaan, dan kesetiakawanan sosial.

8)     Guru secara bersama-sama memelihara dan meningkatkan mutu organisasi PGRI sebagai sarana perjuangan dan pengabdian.

9)     Guru melaksanakan segala kebijaksanaan Pemerintah dalam bidang pendidikan.

Konsep Multiple Intelegensi

Konsep Multiple Intelegensi (MI), menurut Gardner (1983) dalam bukunya Frame of Mind: The Theory of Multiple intelegences, ada delapan jenis kecerdasan yang dimiliki setiap individu yaitu linguistik, matematis-logis, spasial, kinestetik-jasmani, musikal, interpersonal, intrapersonal, dan naturalis. Melalui delapan jenis kecerdasan ini, setiap individu mengakses informasi yang akan masuk ke dalam dirinya. Karena itu Amstrong (2002) menyebutkan, kecerdasan tersebut merupakan modalitas untuk melejitkan kemampuan setiap siswa dan menjadikan mereka sebagai sang juara, karena pada dasarnya setiap anak cerdas. Sebelum menerapkan MI sebagai suatu strategi dalam pengembangan potensi seseorang, perlu kita kenali atau pahami ciri-ciri yang dimiliki seseorang.
1. Kecerdasan Linguistik, umumnya memiliki ciri antara lain (a) suka menulis kreatif, (b) suka mengarang kisah khayal atau menceritakan lelucon, (c) sangat hafal nama, tempat, tanggal atau hal-hal kecil, (d) membaca di waktu senggang, (e) mengeja kata dengan tepat dan mudah, (f) suka mengisi teka-teki silang, (f) menikmati dengan cara mendengarkan, (g) unggul dalam mata pelajaran bahasa (membaca, menulis dan berkomunikasi).
2. Kecerdasan Matematika-Logis, cirinya antara lain: (a) menghitung problem aritmatika dengan cepat di luar kepala, (b) suka mengajukan pertanyaan yang sifatnya analisis, misalnya mengapa hujan turun?, (c) ahli dalam permainan catur, halma dsb, (d) mampu menjelaskan masalah secara logis, (d) suka merancang eksperimen untuk membuktikan sesuatu, (e) menghabiskan waktu dengan permainan logika seperti teka-teki, berprestasi dalam Matematika dan IPA.
3. Kecerdasan Spasial dicirikan antara lain: (a) memberikan gambaran visual yang jelas ketika menjelaskan sesuatu, (b) mudah membaca peta atau diagram, (c) menggambar sosok orang atau benda persis aslinya, (d) senang melihat film, slide, foto, atau karya seni lainnya, (e) sangat menikmati kegiatan visual, seperti teka-teki atau sejenisnya, (f) suka melamun dan berfantasi, (g) mencoret-coret di atas kertas atau buku tugas sekolah, (h) lebih memahamai informasi lewat gambar daripada kata-kata atau uraian, (i) menonjol dalam mata pelajaran seni.
4. Kecerdasan Kinestetik-Jasmani, memiliki ciri: (a) banyak bergerak ketika duduk atau mendengarkan sesuatu, (b) aktif dalam kegiatan fisik seperti berenang, bersepeda, hiking atau skateboard, (c) perlu menyentuh sesuatu yang sedang dipelajarinya, (d) menikmati kegiatan melompat, lari, gulat atau kegiatan fisik lainnya, (e) memperlihatkan keterampilan dalam bidang kerajinan tangan seperti mengukir, menjahit, memahat, (f) pandai menirukan gerakan, kebiasaan atau prilaku orang lain, (g) bereaksi secara fisik terhadap jawaban masalah yang dihadapinya, (h) suka membongkar berbagai benda kemudian menyusunnya lagi, (i) berprestasi dalam mata pelajaran olahraga dan yang bersifat kompetitif.
5. Kecerdasan Musikal memiliki ciri antara lain: (a) suka memainkan alat musik di rumah atau di sekolah, (b) mudah mengingat melodi suatu lagu, (c) lebih bisa belajar dengan iringan musik, (d) bernyanyi atau bersenandung untuk diri sendiri atau orang lain, (e) mudah mengikuti irama musik, (f) mempunyai suara bagus untuk bernyanyi, (g) berprestasi bagus dalam mata pelajaran musik.
6. Kecerdasan Interpersonal memiliki ciri antara lain: (a) mempunyai banyak teman, (b) suka bersosialisasi di sekolah atau di lingkungan tempat tinggalnya, (c) banyak terlibat dalam kegiatan kelompok di luar jam sekolah, (d) berperan sebagai penengah ketika terjadi konflik antartemannya, (e) berempati besar terhadap perasaan atau penderitaan orang lain, (f) sangat menikmati pekerjaan mengajari orang lain, (g) berbakat menjadi pemimpin dan berperestasi dalam mata pelajaran ilmu sosial.
7. Kecerdasan Intrapersonal memiliki ciri antara lain: (a) memperlihatkan sikap independen dan kemauan kuat, (b) bekerja atau belajar dengan baik seorang diri, (c) memiliki rasa percaya diri yang tinggi, (d) banyak belajar dari kesalahan masa lalu, (e) berpikir fokus dan terarah pada pencapaian tujuan, (f) banyak terlibat dalam hobi atau proyek yang dikerjakan sendiri.
8. Kecerdasan Naturalis, memiliki ciri antara lain: (a) suka dan akrab pada berbagai hewan peliharaan, (b) sangat menikmati berjalan-jalan di alam terbuka, (c) suka berkebun atau dekat dengan taman dan memelihara binatang, (d) menghabiskan waktu di dekat akuarium atau sistem kehidupan alam, (e) suka membawa pulang serangga, daun bunga atau benda alam lainnya, (f) berprestasi dalam mata pelajaran IPA, Biologi, dan lingkungan hidup.
Keunikan yang dikemukakan Gardner adalah, setiap kecerdasan dalam upaya mengelola informasi bekerja secara spasial dalam sistem otak manusia. Tetapi pada saat mengeluarkannya, ke delapan jenis kecerdasan itu bekerjasama untuk menghasilkan informasi sesuai yang dibutuhkan

A word is “bundle” of meaning components. T

A word is “bundle” of meaning components. The translator needs to be able to analyze the lexical items ( word ) of the source text in order to the translate them. This mean being able to “unpack” words in order to show the meaning that is represented by the lexical form.

Concepts

Concept is used in this text to refer not to the form (word) but only to the meaning content. A concepts is recognizable unit of meaning in any given language. These concepts may be broken down into a number of meaning components (bits of information) for example , the concept ram can be broken down into SHEEP, MALE, and ADULT. A concept is a bundle of components of meaning .concepts are identified in a given language on the principle of contrast and comparison wihin the system the system of that language.

The first step, then, in the analysis of words is to determine whether the word is reffering primarily to a THING concept, an EVENT concept, an ATRIBUTE concepts or a RELATION concept.

For example stone is a THING, eat is an ACTION green is an ATRIBUTES and on is a RELATION.however many words are not that easily classified . they more difficultto classify because there is a skewing between the semantic classification and the grammatical classification. Some words are made up of more than one concepts.

When we define such a word , we make explicit the concepts which are combined together in that word. For example , we might define runner by saying a person who runs . we have made explicit the fact that runner is in the englishlanguage. The central concept is a person and the concept RUNS serves to define more concisely (to restrict ) PERSON. The word runner is talking about THING , that is a PERSON , but it is also talking about an EVENT , RUN.

TRANSLATING CONCEPTS

There will be words which have some of the meaning components combined in them matching with some additional ones. . there will be develop overlap , but there is seldom a complete match between languages. several words in the source language may be translated by a single word. For example “we are shelling corn”

In order to analyze the meaning if a word in preparation for translation , one must first think of what the central concept is and in what way this is limited. It may then possible to translate with a word in the receptor language which is equivalent to the central concepts and use a phrase to add the further definition

Skewing of classification

the same form may also be used as two different parts of speech. For example , notice the use of blue in the phrase blue sky and sky blue.in the first blue is used as an adjective to describe the sky and in the second sky is used as a noun . in the second , however a THING the sky is used as an adjective to modify blue which is an ATTRIBUTES used as a noun

the translator must guard againts trying to match parts of the speech from language to language . there is little guarantee that what is a noun in one language is best translated by a noun in another language .

the skewing between semantic classes and parts of speech occurs frequently. Many language have special forms which make it possible to use an EVENS concepts as a noun in the grammar for example knowladge is a noun based on the EVENT concept knoe. Ability is a noun based on the concepts to be able and full report is a noun phrase on the concept to report fully.there are forms which modify nouns that refer to EVENT concepts for example falling in falling star.Falling refers to an EVENT concepts , the semantic structure would be a star which is falling. In the phrase starry eyes the adjective starry refers to THINGS ,stars and so the semantic stru ture would be eyes which look like stars. There is skewing between the grammar and the semantic structure.

If there were no skewing , the text would sound very monotonous and uninteresting. A translator will find it helpful to analyze the source language by comparing the part of speech with the semantic classification. Notice the skewing :

1. Pronoun Verb                      Noun

Our                        beloved               ruler

THING                   EVENT                   THING- EVENT

2. Noun prep                      Noun

The death            of                            the dancer

EVENT                   RELATION            THING – EVENT

3. Noun prep                                                      Noun

a carpenter                                         from                                                      abidjan

THING – EVENT                                 EVENT – RELATION                          THING

I t may necessary to “unpack” the words and at the same time eliminate the skewing of classification by using verbs for EVENTS and nouns for THINGS. The example could be unpacked and rewritten :

1. We love him. He rules us
2. The person who danced died
3. He is person who works with wood and who lived in abidjan

RESTATEMENT

A Restatement which reflects more exactly the semantic structure because the skewing between the grammar and the semantic has been eliminated . THINGS a represented by nouns, EVENTS by verbs , ATTRIBUTES by adjectives or adverbs and RELATION byrelationals. The processof “unpacking “ the semantic structure of a word is called restatement. The restatement will make explicit each concept of the concept cluster or of the proposition which is represented by the word.

For example , a word like centurion may be restated by a concept cluster – a man who commands one hundred soldiers. Words in this restatement like
“soldiers” could again be broken down into meaning components, but it is not to the advantage of the translator to try break down every word into basic structure of meaning components

EXAMPLE OF CRHONOLOGICAL ORDER PARAGRAPH

CONSTRUCTING THE TEST

1. Introduction

Thesis statement: The construction of an educational test includes the following steps

1. Body
2. Planning the Test
3. Determining the general course objectives
4. Dividing the general course objectives into their components
5. Estabilising the general design of the test
6. Preparing the test items and direction
7. Additional notes on the preparation of iems
8. Writing the directions
9. Reviewing the items
10. Identify items would be lost later in pretesting
11. Appear in version the final test
12. Pretesting the material
13. Try out the directions
14. To check the estimated time required for examinees
15. Analyzing the pretest results item analysis
16. Determining item difficulty
17. Determining items discrimination
18. Assembling the final form
19. Used the same number of times
20. Answer positions do not formany obser
21. Reproduction the test
22. Clearly as possible
23. Processes the least satisfactory

• Conclusion

To conclude, in the process of the construction as applied to the testing of English as a second of language must think about how to make a test.

CONSTRUCTING THE TEST

In the process of the test construction as applied to the testing of English as a second language. The construction of an educational test includes the following steps :

First is planning the test in the preparation of an achievement test. One may base the test objectives directly on the objectives of the course, need to break them down into their specific components. .let us for suppose, for example that the task is to prepare a final examination in english as a second language for school students , the course content is a s follow : text book lesson, laboratory practice. After we may determine which one of these components should be measured in final examination and establisihed the objectives of hypothetical course in suffien detail enable to decide upon the general design of final achievement.

Second, preparing the test items and directions. In the preparation of multiple choice or short answer items necessary to write more items will be needed in the final form of the test. Items can easily be added or deleted and test direction should be brief, simple to understand, free from possible ambiguities and clearly to wite directions.

Third is reviewing the items which have been written. They should be set aside for a few days before being reviewed by the writer. Careful review will often identify items which otherwise would be lost later in pretesting of the subject – matter specialist.were they appear in the final version on the test.

Fourth, pretesting the material is all items have been tried out on fairly large number of subjects of the same kind as those for whom the test being designed. for example, if they are suitable of difficulty neither too hard nor easy too easy for the population being tested. Pretesting also provide opportunity for the test maker to try out the test direction and to check the estimated time required for examinees to work items of the test.

Fifth, analyze the pretest result, we must determine the difficulty level of each team and determine how well each item discriminates between high and low level examinees for example , for example, items showing negative discrimination or low discrimination should be revised

Sixth, assembling the final forms , the test maker must take care not only to order the items according to increasing level of difficulty but also to ensure that each answer position is used about the same number of times and the answer positions do not form any observable pattern. For example, if a test consisting of one hundred each answer position A, B, C, and D , should occur about twenty five times.

The last, reproducing the test , test material be reproduced as clearly as possible for the poor reproduction of a test will almost certainly affect to students and the processes are the least satisfactory, because the copies often lack clarity and because only a limited number copies can be made per master.

So in the process of the construction as applied to the testing of English as a second of language must think about how to make a test.

TEACHING LISTENING SKILLS TO YOUNG LEARNERS THROUGH “LISTENING AND DO” SONGS

INTRODUCTION

1. Background of the problem

English is a foreign language in many countries, which is taught elementary school to university level, English is also intensively used in international communication. In English there are fourth skill to be a mastered in English such as : speaking, listening, reading and writing.

Listening as a part of the language skill, in the world there many techniques to teaching listening skill, one of them “teaching listening skills to young learner through “listen and do” song.Teachers around the world can apply this lesson to songs of their own choice to make students active participants in the listening activity from start to finish and teaching listening skill through songs can increase students stimulate to learn English as foreign language.

1. The formulation of problem

Based on the background of the problem about teaching English to young learner through listen and do song, I would like to formulate the problem :

1. What is the meaning ofteaching English to young learner through” listen and do”song ?
2. Explain about listening skills and young learner ?
3. How to teach song ?
4. The purpose of problem
5. To know the techniques of teaching listening skills to young learner through song
6. To know how the effect to student if teach English through song
7. The teacher can apply this techniques in the classroom when they teaching listening skills.